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33 results for โ€œCANNโ€

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arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

PCM: A Proof-Carrying Message Protocol for Verifiable Multi-Agent Communication

Proof-Carrying Messages (PCM) is a protocol where each claim an AI agent sends carries evidence: records from an append-only Merkle log the agent cannot write, with inclusion proofs, signed by an attesting signer. Receivers verify offline in about 1 ms and label each claim proven, unproven or failed. On 926 messages (712 lies in 16 classes), PCM accepts 10 lies (1.4%), all stale evidence; plain A2A accepts all 712.

A2AModel Context ProtocoluAgents+5
arXiv

agents, researchยท Added 31 Oct 2026, published 29 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

PCM: A Proof-Carrying Message Protocol for Verifiable Multi-Agent Communication

Proof-Carrying Messages (PCM) is a protocol where each claim an AI agent sends carries evidence: records from an append-only Merkle log the agent cannot write, with inclusion proofs, signed by an attesting signer it cannot control. Receivers verify offline and mark each claim proven, unproven or failed. On 926 messages (712 lies in 16 classes) PCM accepted 10 lies, all stale evidence (1.4%), while plain A2A accepted all 712. Verification takes about 1 ms.

Model Context ProtocolA2AuAgents
prompt injectionRFC 9421SCITT+3

AI Securityยท Added 31 Oct 2026, published 29 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

When Visual Evidence Is Insufficient: How Instructions, Post-Training, and Internal Activations Shape Refusal in Multimodal Language Models

This paper studies how multimodal LLMs refuse questions that an image cannot answer, using the MoHoBench benchmark on three MLLMs. It varies the meaning and placement of refusal instructions, compares supervised and preference-based post-training, and intervenes on a refusal-related activation direction. Instructions change refusal at the sample level in ways aggregate rates hide. Post-training raises refusal most but can mix refusal with attempted answers. Activation intervention gives smaller, transferable changes.

vision-language modelLLM
MoHoBencharXiv

ai-safety, multimodal, researchยท Added 28 Oct 2026, published 27 Oct 2026

eprint.iacr.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

A Spectral Theory of Local-to-Global Leakage

A Spectral Theory of Local-to-Global Leakage is an IACR ePrint paper (2026/2571) by Rei Ueno on additive secret sharing over finite abelian groups. It gives an exact leakage decomposition into local leakage magnitude and spectral alignment across shares. Two channels with identical local mutual information can have exponentially different global leakage. Automorphism-weighted sharing can cancel leakage perfectly with finitely many shares, which ordinary additive sharing cannot do.

Rei UenoMรถbius inversion

Hardware & RFยท Added 21 Oct 2026, published 20 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

ToFu: Exploiting and Fuzzing the LLMโ€“Orchestratorโ€“Tool Trust Boundary

ToFu is a tool-aware fuzzing framework for LLM tools, including MCP servers. It maps each tool argument, using its metadata, to one of 74 CWE-guided semantics-aware sanitizers (path, URL, SQL and similar). It then generates schema-valid Atheris harnesses and semantic oracles, using runtime tracers for in-process tools and outcome oracles for opaque ones. The LLM (gpt-4.1) only maps sanitizers and writes seeds; it is never the security judge. The paper also shows a "Repeat-After-Me" trick, where an LLM told to repeat attacker-crafted text emits a tool call the orchestrator executes, reproduced on LangGraph, MAF, ADK 2.0, AutoGen, Strands and CrewAI. Across 273 runnable MCP servers (3,405 tools) it reports 253 verified bugs in 343 tools across 118 servers, such as path traversal, log injection and exfiltration. These are failures a crash-based fuzzer would miss. The result matters because it shows LLM-generated tool arguments cannot be treated as trusted.

Model Context ProtocolAtherisCodeQL+7
ToFuStrandsMAF+10

mcp, research, agentsยท Added 18 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

Approve What, Exactly? Effect Binding and Trusted Rendering for Agent Step-Up Authorization

Paper arguing that agent human-approval prompts count as a second factor only if agent compromise cannot forge them and they name exactly what is approved. It defines twelve attacks on the approval path (decoy recipients, amount cancellation, card padding, label spoofing, enrollment squatting, threshold splitting) and tests them against AP2, Microsoft's action-bound approval design and MCP elicitation. An audit of ten agent runtimes found no third-party verifiable approval record and post-approval argument changes in four of eight. The reference defense ASU (Agent Step-Up) renders the card from a canonical effect descriptor, has a phone passkey sign its digest, and executes only the stored call. It is proven in Tamarin (53 lemmas) and evaluated on 27,108 scripted trials and 609 AgentDojo pairs. The trusted card cut forged-narration attack success from 0.54 to 0.03 and raised LLM-approver catch rate from 0.30 to 0.98.

Model Context ProtocolMicrosoft
Agent Payments ProtocolAgent Step-UpASU+6

AI Security, Identity & Accessยท Added 17 Oct 2026, published 15 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

SecReason: Vulnerability Detection and In-Stream Self-Repair for LLM Code Generation

SecReason is an in-stream defense for reasoning LLMs that monitors code drafted inside the streamed chain of thought. Dual-track incremental scanning applies security rules per statement and traces dataflows across accumulated code; when a rule fires, generation is interrupted, a warning is inserted, and decoding resumes so the model repairs the draft in the same trace. On CWEval and SecCodeBench it raises the share of secure and functionally correct runs from below 15% to 72.8%โ€“98.1%, uses fewer tokens than post-hoc repair, and limits regressions from false warnings.

LLM
SecReasonCWEvalSecCodeBench

AI Security, AppSecยท Added 16 Oct 2026, published 10 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

SecReason: Vulnerability Detection and In-Stream Self-Repair for LLM Code Generation

SecReason is an in-stream defense for reasoning LLMs that monitors code drafted inside the streamed chain of thought. Dual-track incremental scanning applies security rules per statement and traces dataflow across accumulated code. When a rule fires, generation is interrupted, a warning is inserted and decoding resumes, so the model repairs its draft without regenerating the full response. On CWEval and SecCodeBench it raises the share of secure and functionally correct runs from below 15% to 72.8%โ€“98.1%, uses fewer tokens than post-hoc repair, and limits functional regressions from false warnings.

LLM
SecReasonCWEvalSecCodeBench

AppSec, AI Securityยท Added 15 Oct 2026, published 10 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

Hide and Seek: HIDE Concepts to SEEK explanations for black box models

Hide and Seek (HnS) is a concept-level attribution method for black-box vision models. It needs no model weights and no concept-labeled datasets. Given a concept and an image set, it uses a vision-language model to retrieve concept-aligned images and localize the concept, masks the localized region, and takes attribution from the change in the black-box model's output. It agreed better with ground-truth attributions than existing methods on CelebA and COCO-Stuff, and it works on tasks existing concept attribution methods cannot handle, such as image captioning and satellite image segmentation.

vision-language model
Hide and SeekHnSCelebA+1

research, multimodalยท Added 12 Oct 2026, published 9 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

BLiMPPI: Benchmark of Linguistic Minimal Pairs for Polarity Items

BLiMPPI is a multilingual evaluation suite of over 12,000 negative polarity item (NPI) minimal pairs across 33 languages. A pipeline finds NPIs in Universal Dependencies treebanks, labels their licensing environments, and perturbs them into grammatical/ungrammatical pairs. Across 12 multilingual and 2 monolingual models plus n-gram baselines, multilingual models do worst on lower-resource languages and on pairs that n-grams cannot solve. The paper also analyses NPI typology, language family, licensing variability and NPI-licenser distance.

Universal Dependenciesn-gram
BLiMPPI

evals, researchยท Added 12 Oct 2026, published 9 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

AgentValve: Sybil-Resilient Payment Authorization for Permissionless AI Markets

AgentValve is a protocol for Sybil-resilient payment authorization when AI agents pick and pay service providers without human review in permissionless markets. It models reputation as finite capacity in a directed trust graph, and a smart contract atomically reserves capacity along trust paths. This bounds honest agents' payment exposure to the capacity they extend into the adversarial region, so fake identities and fabricated feedback inside that region cannot raise the bound. Payment-backed capacity creation and bounded route length limit depletion by malicious senders. A witness-commit mechanism splits off-chain route discovery from on-chain verification, cutting verification to linear work with constant persistent state per payment. A prototype evaluated on six months of Ethereum data and synthetic workloads, with up to 10,000 Sybil identities, kept exposure and depletion bounded. Admission cost fell by up to 40.8% versus baselines, at roughly $0.04-$0.21 per common payment.

Ethereumsmart contracts
AgentValve

research, agentsยท Added 13 Oct 2026, published 9 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

What Output-Only Review Cannot Verify: Study Contracts for Research Agents

Proposes "study contracts" that bind an AI-generated study's declared experimental choices, run obligations and claim scope to recorded execution evidence, defining contract-relative verification as distinct from scientific truth. In a diagnostic with eight self-authored clean/mutated pairs, a deterministic fault-specific checker caught all eight mutations, while eighteen LLM judge aliases given metadata-filtered packages flagged 104 of 144 mutated cases (32 abstentions, 8 terminal failures). The authors stress the setting is deliberately information-asymmetric, not a verifier-quality comparison or reward-hacking result, and call for full-information comparisons, legitimate-adaptation controls and closed-loop agent evaluations.

research, evals, agentsยท Added 9 Oct 2026, published 8 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

Who Verifies the Verifier? Co-Evolving Inspectable Graders with Self-Improving Agents

Proposes making the verifier the evolving object in self-improving agent loops. The verifier is an inspectable expression over small, mostly deterministic drawback detectors, synthesized from clustered failures, gated at birth, and selected for agreement with a ten-item anchored reference set plus consensus over unlabeled outputs, never for the agent's score. On MBPP+ it gains +0.21 held-out agreement over the hand-authored seed and ends ahead of the bare LLM judge it contains. Removing the anchor guards collapses the verifier into an always-pass grader that still trains skills as well, so downstream task score cannot certify a self-evolved verifier. The paper's Double Ratchet pairs the verifier with a lifecycle-managed skill loop and retains 88-110% of the lift from ground truth or a rubric on code generation, enterprise text-to-SQL and reference-free report generation.

MBPP+

research, evals, agentsยท Added 9 Oct 2026, published 8 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

BRANCH: Bypassing Multi-Scanner AI Guardrails

BRANCH is a bypass methodology for guardrail systems built from multiple scanners (prompt injection/jailbreak detectors). It uses a branching tree search that applies adversarial perturbations to individual scanners and selects techniques based on overall improvement across all scanners, decoupling bypass evaluation from attack signal optimization. It reports 100% attack success across 6 guardrail systems in 120 scenarios with 72% fewer queries and 4.5x lower wallclock time than established techniques, and transfers to 29 unseen guardrails, including 8 commercial black-box ones.

LLM
BRANCH

AI Securityยท Added 9 Oct 2026, published 7 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

DITTO: A Context-aware Pickle-based Pre-Trained Model Scanner for Effective Security Audits

Introduces DITTO, a stack-based, context-aware scanner for Pickle-based pre-trained models that tracks Pickle VM state transitions and applies semantic analysis to infer model intent. Authors found 9.3% of 10,000+ popular Hugging Face repos still use Pickle, and release PickleBench (959 benign, 92 malicious models, including extension registry attacks missed by existing tools). Reports 100% coverage, 0% false negatives, 0.7% false positives, F1 0.966, outperforming current scanners.

Hugging FacePython
DITTOPickleBenchextension registry attacks

AI Security, Supply Chain, AppSecยท Added 9 Oct 2026, published 7 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

AI Safety Considerations for Agents With Limited Time to Act

This arXiv preprint argues that proofs of AI safety or alignment which consider the agent in isolation are incomplete, because the environment's structure matters just as much. The authors construct two theoretical scenarios โ€” one with an infinite state space, one with signal mixture โ€” under partial observability and time-limited action, and prove that even a hypothetically perfect agent cannot guarantee safe behavior in them. The conclusion is that any rigorous safety or alignment proof must jointly specify the agent and the environment's safe-action structure, not the agent alone.

ai-safety, researchยท Added 8 Oct 2026, published 7 Oct 2026

github.compaper๐Ÿง  AI

Integer multiplication below n log n

A preprint hosted in OpenAI's "math" GitHub repository claiming a result on integer multiplication algorithms with complexity below the n log n bound, the long-standing benchmark achieved by the Harveyโ€“van der Hoeven algorithm in 2019. The page itself only exposes citation metadata (author, title, BibTeX entry) with the actual paper linked as a PDF, so the specific proof technique and whether it was AI-assisted cannot be confirmed from the fetched text alone.

OpenAI

researchยท Added 7 Oct 2026, published 6 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

Post-Training Semantic Lifting for 3D Gaussian Splatting: Separating Detector, Lifting and Representation Error

This arXiv paper introduces a post-training semantic lifting method for 3D Gaussian Splatting that assigns a single target class to Gaussians by accumulating target/non-target evidence across all views, weighted by per-view visibility, then filters with a dual-threshold (ฮฒ and ฮณฮฒ) scheme that selects high-confidence seeds and extends them via connected components. The authors evaluate by transferring labels from Gaussians to mesh vertices and decompose error into three sources โ€” the 2D detector, the lifting step, and the representation transfer โ€” tuning thresholds on seven Replica scenes and testing on ten held-out ScanNet++ scenes, reaching mean mIoU of 0.93/0.65 (dataset masks/YOLO masks) on validation and 0.80/0.54 on test, a 0.24 mIoU improvement over prior per-view thresholding. The error analysis finds the 2D detector is the dominant remaining error source, informing where future gains in 3D semantic reconstruction should focus.

3D Gaussian Splatting
ScanNet++ReplicaYOLO+1

research, multimodalยท Added 7 Oct 2026, published 6 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

COPEX: Benchmarking LLM Robustness to Adversarial Context Across Model Context Protocol Layers

COPEX (COntext Provider EXploitation) is a benchmark that isolates the tool-selecting LLM as the unit of evaluation in Model Context Protocol systems, fixing the surrounding agent stack and varying only the model to measure its intrinsic susceptibility to adversarial context. It covers 25 attack types across 125 scenarios spanning four entry surfaces โ€” model/agent, client, server/tool, and transport โ€” and tests nine models across 3,375 trials, finding a mean attack success rate of 64.4% (58.3%โ€“71.4% by surface); combined input and context scanning cut mean attack success by 49.6% on an eight-attack defense subset. The work separates "system exposure" (attacks succeeding outside the model's observation/control) from "model susceptibility," and the benchmark itself is released publicly.

Model Context ProtocolLLM
COPEX

AI Securityยท Added 6 Oct 2026, published 3 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

CorrectGuard: Eyes-Off Correctness Estimation for Black-Box Security Guardrails

CorrectGuard is a framework for estimating how accurately black-box security guardrails (jailbreak, harmful-content, prompt-injection and extraction detectors) perform on inputs that cannot be inspected by humans or by the evaluating model itself, using an independent correctness model trained only on labeled "eyes-on" data. The authors test in-context-learning, embedding-based, and fine-tuned correctness classifiers under leave-one-dataset-out evaluation across 13 safety/security datasets and multiple open-weight guardrails, showing up to 25-point macro-accuracy gains and improved risk-coverage tradeoffs (AURC reduced from 0.33โ€“0.44 to 0.17โ€“0.22) for guardrail decision ranking and abstention. The work matters for anyone building auditing or eval pipelines for opaque safety classifiers without privileged access to their internals.

CorrectGuard

evals, researchยท Added 5 Oct 2026, published 2 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

The Innocent Courier: Covert Exfiltration Through Legitimate LLM Web Fetching

LLMLeak is an attack that abuses an LLM agent's legitimate web-fetching tool as a covert exfiltration channel for malware that cannot itself reach the internet. A local malicious component embeds a secret in a URL disguised as useful reference material (e.g. for a library migration task); when the LLM fetches it, the secret reaches an attacker-controlled DNS or web server, achieving a 79.7% attack success rate across eleven open-parameter models and working against real-world chatbots.

LLM
LLMLeak

AI Securityยท Added 2 Oct 2026, published 1 Oct 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

Ranking-Aware Prompt Optimization for Multimodal Clinical Diagnosis

The paper introduces Ranking-PE, a modification to reflective prompt-optimization methods like GEPA that replaces per-instance accuracy scoring with pairwise AUROC-equivalent scoring (via the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney identity) across the scores matrix, reflection feedback, and candidate selection. Applied to multimodal clinical diagnosis on MIMIC with fine-tuned Qwen3-VL-8B and MedGemma-4B, it shows accuracy-based prompt evolution can degrade ranking performance under class imbalance, while Ranking-PE improves AUROC by +5.8pp and +16.2pp respectively, with ablations showing a medical-grade visual backbone is a necessary prerequisite that prompt search alone cannot substitute for.

Qwen3-VLvision-language model
GEPAMedGemma-4BMIMIC

research, prompting, multimodalยท Added 1 Oct 2026, published 30 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

When One Leak Pays Forever: Context Binding and the Price of Deterring Collusion

This arXiv paper models collusion in threshold-encrypted mempools, where a quorum of a decryption committee can sell its decryption capability to a front-runner and profit repeatedly as long as the leaked key keeps decrypting future blocks. The authors derive that deterrence requires a penalty (e.g., slashable stake) covering the largest discounted value a single leak can reach, show constant penalties cannot deter unbounded reuse without key rotation, formulate the cheapest deterring stake profile as a covering linear program, and argue per-epoch keys drastically cut the required stake versus a key valid for its whole lifetime. They calibrate the model on Ethereum front-running data and place the Ferveo and Shutter threshold-encryption protocols within it, with extensions to sealed-bid auctions, multi-authority voting, and federated learning under a shared key.

EthereumFerveoShutter
maximal extractable value

Blockchainยท Added 2 Oct 2026, published 29 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

Many Eyes, One World: Feed-Forward 3D Reconstruction from Mixed Cameras

MEOW is a feed-forward 3D reconstruction model that jointly predicts metric pointmaps and camera poses from N-view image tuples mixing perspective, fisheye, and full 360ยฐ panoramic images in a single forward pass, without any camera calibration, distortion parameters, or camera-type labels supplied. It keeps a perspective-pretrained backbone and adapts it to heterogeneous cameras purely through a procedural synthetic data engine that renders scenes across a continuous manifold of camera models with exact rays, depth, and verified covisibility, then transfers zero-shot to real captures, beating the Wid3R baseline (79.9 vs 53.8 mAA@30 on heterogeneous 2D3DS tuples even when Wid3R is given ground-truth camera types) and scoring 79.4 AUC@30 on a new laser-scanned mixed-camera benchmark.

MEOWWid3R2D3DS

research, multimodalยท Added 29 Sep 2026, published 28 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

Certified Multi-Source Integrity for Structured Agent Actions

This arXiv paper proposes a certifier for structured, privileged agent actions such as paying an invoice, assembled from potentially corrupted documents and tool outputs, formalizing when multi-source corroboration can be trusted under indirect prompt injection. It uses a corruption-radius rule counted via minimum hitting sets over corruption-distinct evidence classes so laundered or re-published copies cannot fake a quorum, plus deterministic reconciliation and trusted anchors for single-sourced fields. Evaluated on 70,966 sanctions entities and 450 software-supply-chain provenance records, and against five LLM agents where a realistic injection fools all but one model and existing action-gating or provenance baselines are broken while the certifier admits no unsafe action.

LLM

AI Securityยท Added 2 Oct 2026, published 28 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

Beyond F1: Evaluating Coverage and Failure Recovery in AI Model Security Scanners

This arXiv paper benchmarks three open-source ML model security scanners โ€” ModelScan, ModelAudit, and Fickling โ€” against a 170-artifact synthetic corpus of Pickle and PyTorch files spanning 145 specimen families, distinguishing whether a scanner merely produces a usable security verdict from whether that verdict is correct. ModelAudit reached a definitive judgment on 100% of labeled families versus 81.5% for Fickling and 49.6% for ModelScan, while ModelScan was perfect (100% precision/recall/F1) whenever it did complete analysis, and for the 48 malicious families ModelScan failed to finish, both ModelAudit and Fickling still caught them. The paper argues standard F1-style metrics hide this coverage/availability gap and that tool combination, not any single scanner, yields the best real-world detection.

PyTorchModelScanModelAudit+1

AI Securityยท Added 26 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

A First Measurement Study on Authentication Security in Real-World Remote MCP Servers

The first large-scale measurement study of authentication security across real-world remote MCP servers, scanning 7,973 live deployments and finding 40.55% expose tools with no authentication at all. For the 119 testable OAuth-enabled servers, the authors built a semi-automated (passive traffic inspection + active dynamic probing) detection framework and derived a taxonomy of nine flaw types across four categories โ€” three MCP-specific (open client environments, dynamic client registration, delegated authorization) and conventional OAuth misconfigurations โ€” finding every tested server had at least one flaw, with dynamic client registration flaws hitting 96.6% of servers and leading to information leakage or account takeover; the work resulted in 9 CVEs via responsible disclosure.

Model Context ProtocolOAuth

Identity & Access, AI Securityยท Added 26 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

NEUROTESTGEN: Neuro-Symbolic Guided Test Generation with Large Language Models

NEUROTESTGEN is a hybrid test generation approach that combines symbolic execution (via the Z3 SMT solver) with LLM-driven test synthesis to reach target lines and branches for structural code coverage. It uses Z3 to derive path constraints as a guidance specification, has an LLM synthesize concrete executable tests from that specification (falling back to LLM-inferred constraints for object-related conditions SMT solvers cannot handle), and iterates with feedback until coverage goals are met. Evaluated across Llama 3.3 70B, GPT-4o Mini, Claude 3.5 Haiku, and Claude Sonnet 4.6, it outperforms prior state-of-the-art on a standard benchmark.

Z3Llama 3.3 70BGPT-4o Mini+2

research, evalsยท Added 26 Sep 2026, published 24 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿง  AI

Coding Agents with an Obstacle-Aware Harness for Safe Robot Manipulation

This arXiv paper studies coding agents that write robot controller programs for manipulation tasks under a safety constraint (avoid touching a specified obstacle), finding they collide in most cases despite reasoning about the obstacle and being explicitly instructed not to touch it. The authors trace the failure to planning: the model lacks a notion of a clearing route and cannot replan when a route becomes infeasible, and treats contact execution as unbounded by the constraint. They propose SafeHarness, an obstacle-aware harness with route planning (bounding boxes, candidate waypoint routes, verification and replanning) and obstacle-aware contact execution, which raises task success to 71.9% and collision avoidance to 87.5%, beating prior SOTA by 6.5% and 27.0% respectively.

SafeHarness

research, agents, multimodalยท Added 22 Sep 2026, published 17 Sep 2026

arxiv.orgpaper๐Ÿ›ก๏ธ Security

Closed-World Resolution Against Tool Hallucination in LLM Agents

This arXiv paper identifies tool hallucination โ€” LLM agents calling nonexistent tools or passing undeclared arguments โ€” as a structural blind spot that existing tool-selection and tool-gating defenses cannot catch, since a hallucinated call was never a real gating decision. The authors propose a five-class taxonomy (H1-H5) of tool hallucination and a training-free closed-world resolver (the Resolution Rung, based on registry membership plus signature checking) that must run before any causal gate, then extend the analysis to the Model Context Protocol where merging multiple servers into one namespace creates a second hallucination class (M1-M5) from tool collisions and shadowing. Across ten hosted models they measure 322 hallucinations on single-registry tool calls and 154 on a live MCP surface, and release the versioned Hallucinated-Tools Benchmark (HTB) for comparing resolvers.

Model Context ProtocolLLM
Hallucinated-Tools Benchmark

AI Securityยท Added 2 Oct 2026, published 16 Sep 2026

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